The Power of Food in Nation-Building: Jollof Rice in Nigerian Politics
Often seen as a staple dish in West Africa, Jollof Rice is more than just the centerpiece of Nigerian gatherings; it functions as a shared cultural practice that can foster national unity across ethnic lines more effectively than many government-led initiatives. Because Nigeria’s borders were artificially drawn by the British colonial empire, the country has struggled to transcend ethnic divisions, establish a shared national identity, and sustain state-led unity efforts since gaining independence in 1960. In 1914, the British Empire formally amalgamated the North and South into a single protectorate, thus laying the foundation for these divisions. By the 1950s, nationalist movements in Northern, Western, and Eastern Nigeria had emerged, each advocating distinct political agendas shaped by regional interests.
Despite gaining independence in 1960, the country remained divided among three major political parties representing the largest ethnic groups: Igbo in the East, Yoruba in the West, and Hausa-Fulani in the North. As tensions between the ethnic groups rose, the Nigerian Civil War broke out in 1967, following a coup, counter-coup, pogrom, and military rule. In Nigeria’s case, the state was established before a shared national identity had formed. However, because of the high salience of ethnic divisions in Nigeria, the state faced significant challenges in promoting national unity through policy. Although top-down unity defined by institutional strategy may face barriers, bottom-up shared cultural practices defined by everyday social interactions and traditions like Jollof Rice show how identity can be based around the common unifier of food.
Nigeria’s case in nation-building to create a shared identity challenges common political theory by showing the limits of state-led civic nationalism in highly divided states. In "Migrants Into Citizens? Traditions of Nationhood and Politics of Citizenship in France and Germany," a chapter from William Julius Wilson’s Sociology and the Public Agenda, American scholar Rogers Brubaker makes a key distinction between ethnic and civic nationalism using France and Germany as case studies. While Germany’s national identity was strong before borders were drawn, France maintained modern bureaucracy and defined borders, but lacked common language, shared culture, and identity.
However, after Prussia defeated the French military in the Franco-Prussia War in 1871, French leadership realized the importance of a national identity. As a result, they implemented policies such as mandatory military service, and standardized education, while promoting French over other dialects.
Much like how France contained several distinct identities throughout the country after state formation, Nigeria maintained between 250 and 400 ethnic groups post-independence. Unlike France, Nigeria’s state-led civic nation-building efforts encountered significant obstacles in earning the public’s trust and did not achieve the desired results. The key distinction lies in the rigidity of ethnic divisions. France’s internal differences were less pronounced and therefore more susceptible to state-led integration.
After the Nigerian Civil War and subsequent military regime, Nigeria reformed the state to establish a national identity but faced challenges in bridging ethnic divides. Constitutions in both 1979 and 1999 established federalism in order to reduce incentives for regions to secede by granting more autonomy, decentralizing power, and creating more states to break up ethnic blocs. Furthermore, the constitutional doctrine known as The Federal Character Principle required government appointees and resource distribution to reflect Nigeria’s ethnic diversity. While these efforts were somewhat effective in mitigating ethnic differences, they did not fully produce a cohesive national identity. Instead, they further incentivized leaders to mobilize voter bases based on ethnic lines, reinforcing ethnic differences rather than building common ground.
Another state-led initiative was the National Youth Service Corps. This program, established in 1973, requires Nigerian graduates under the age of 30 to complete a one-year service program in a region outside their own. They are assigned to work in roles across the public and private sectors, focusing on healthcare, education, and government, with the goal of fostering cross-cultural unity. While the NYSC was moderately successful in shaping attitudes towards national integration, the effectiveness of the program was often dependent on job assignments and broader social conditions. Furthermore, many participants in the NYSC program view participation as an obligation, and its one-year duration is often criticized for being insufficient in addressing long-term divisions. Paired with standardizing school curriculums and changing the national anthem in 2024, these efforts represent engineered state unity efforts that achieved uneven success, illustrating the limits of state-led civic nation-building in Nigeria. Nigeria’s deeply entrenched ethnic identities fostered distrust in centralized authority, limiting the effectiveness of government-led unity efforts. Instead unity was driven by widespread enjoyment and the shared practice of making Jollof Rice.
Top-down civic integration proved less effective than natural, bottom-up forms of identity such as the widespread consumption and celebration of Nigerian Jollof Rice. Jollof Rice is a popular rice dish often served at parties, celebrations, and in households as a staple dish. Every West African nation has at least one variation of the dish, each claiming to serve the best version. Enjoyed as the centerpiece of any family gathering, this widely consumed dish consists of rice cooked in an aromatic base of tomatoes, onions, and spices and is the focal point of friendly rivalries across West Africa, especially between Ghana and Nigeria. Preparation of Jollof Rice varies from region to region, but the main difference between Nigerian and Ghanaian Jollof Rice is the type of rice used. Nigerians use long-grain rice, which is sturdier and absorbs flavor more effectively, while Ghanaians use more aromatic basmati rice, which makes the dish lighter and adds a unique nutty flavor.
This culinary rivalry gained global attention with the rise of social media platforms in the 2010s, giving West Africans around the world a space to debate who makes the best Jollof Rice and sparking a cultural phenomenon known as the “Jollof Wars.” The viral competition sparked meme campaigns and playful diss tracks targeting rival Jollof styles. In one instance, West Africans united in response to Western chef Jamie Oliver’s attempt to create his own version of the cuisine using nontraditional methods. Unlike formal nation-building initiatives, the celebration of Jollof Rice and subsequent establishment of World Jollof Day on August 22 began organically from popular culture and diaspora communities. While Nigeria sees high salience of ethnic divisions among the Igbo, Yoruba, and Hausa Fulani populations to this day, the Jollof Wars shifted the focus of identity. The Jollof Wars saw individuals from varying ethnicities arguing on behalf of Nigeria, rather than their specific ethnic group. This demonstrates how shared cultural practices like Jollof Rice can foster a sense of national identity that transcends entrenched ethnic divisions.
When a state is established before the nation is united, state-led action is often the solution to foster civic nationalism. However, in countries like Nigeria, where differences across ethnic lines prove highly salient, friendly competition over cultural practices such as food can serve as a unifying force. As illustrated by the Jollof Wars in Nigeria, cultural, community-led forms of identity can be stronger in bringing people together than actions of the state.